Hypertension

What is high blood pressure?

Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against blood vessel walls. The heart pumps blood into the arteries (blood vessels), which carry the blood throughout the body. High blood pressure, also called hypertension, is dangerous because it makes the heart work harder to pump blood to the body and it contributes to hardening of the arteries or atherosclerosis and the development of heart failure.

The top number, the systolic blood pressure, corresponds to the pressure in the arteries as the heart contracts and pumps blood forward into the arteries. The bottom number, the diastolic pressure, represents the pressure in the arteries as the heart relaxes after the contraction. The diastolic pressure reflects the lowest pressure to which the arteries are exposed.

An elevation of the systolic and/or diastolic blood pressure increases the risk of developing heart (cardiac) disease, kidney (renal) disease, hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis or arteriosclerosis), eye damage, and stroke (brain damage). These complications of hypertension are often referred to as end-organ damage because damage to these organs is the end result of chronic (long duration) high blood pressure. For that reason, the diagnosis of high blood pressure is important so efforts can be made to normalize blood pressure and prevent complications.

It was previously thought that rises in diastolic blood pressure were a more important risk factor than systolic elevations, but it is now known that in people 50 years or older systolic hypertension represents a greater risk.

The American Heart Association estimates high blood pressure affects approximately one in three adults in the United States - 73 million people. High blood pressure is also estimated to affect about two million American teens and children, and the Journal of the American Medical Association reports that many are under-diagnosed. Hypertension is clearly a major public health problem.

What Is "Normal" Blood Pressure?

There are several categories of blood pressure, including:

• Normal: Less than 120/80
• Prehypertension: 120-139/80-89
• Stage 1 high blood pressure: 140-159/90-99
• Stage 2 high blood pressure: 160 and above/100 and above

People whose blood pressure is above the normal range should consult their doctor about methods for lowering it

What Causes High Blood Pressure?

The exact causes of high blood pressure are not known. Several factors and conditions may play a role in its development, including:

• Smoking
• Being overweight or obese
• Lack of physical activity
• Too much salt in the diet
• Too much alcohol consumption (more than 1 to 2 drinks per day)
• Stress
• Older age
• Genetics
• Family history of high blood pressure
• Chronic kidney disease
• Adrenal and thyroid disorders

Essential Hypertension

In as many as 95% of reported high blood pressure cases in the United States, the underlying cause cannot be determined. This type of high blood pressure is called essential hypertension.

Though essential hypertension remains somewhat mysterious, it has been linked to certain risk factors. High blood pressure tends to run in families and is more likely to affect men than women. Age and race also play a role. In the United States, blacks are twice as likely as whites to have high blood pressure, although the gap begins to narrow around age 44. After age 65, black women have the highest incidence of high blood pressure.

Essential hypertension is also greatly influenced by diet and lifestyle. The link between salt and high blood pressure is especially compelling. People living on the northern islands of Japan eat more salt per capita than anyone else in the world and have the highest incidence of essential hypertension. By contrast, people who add no salt to their food show virtually no traces of essential hypertension.

The majority of all people with high blood pressure are "salt sensitive," meaning that anything more than the minimal bodily need for salt is too much for them and increases their blood pressure. Other factors that have been associated with essential hypertension include obesity; diabetes; stress; insufficient intake of potassium, calcium, and magnesium; lack of physical activity; and chronic alcohol consumption.

Secondary Hypertension

When a direct cause for high blood pressure can be identified, the condition is described as secondary hypertension. Among the known causes of secondary hypertension, kidney disease ranks highest. Hypertension can also be triggered by tumors or other abnormalities that cause the adrenal glands (small glands that sit atop the kidneys) to secrete excess amounts of the hormones that elevate blood pressure. Birth control pills -- specifically those containing estrogen -- and pregnancy can boost blood pressure, as can medications that constrict blood vessels.

Who Is More Likely to Develop High Blood Pressure?

• People with family members who have high blood pressure.
• People who smoke.
• African-Americans.
• Women who are pregnant.
• Women who take birth control pills.
• People over the age of 35.
• People who are overweight or obese.
• People who are not active.
• People who drink alcohol excessively.
• People who eat too many fatty foods or foods with too much salt.

Obesity! path to death?

Definition

Obesity is a term used to describe body weight that is much greater than what is considered healthy. If you are obese, you have a much higher amount of body fat than lean muscle mass.

Adults with a BMI greater than 30 are considered obese.

Anyone more than 100 pounds overweight or with a BMI greater than 40 is considered morbidly obese.

General Information

Nearly two-thirds of the United States population is overweight. There are many ways to determine if a person is overweight, but experts believe that a person's body mass index (BMI) is the most accurate measurement of body fat for children and adults.

• Adults with a BMI between 25 and 29.9 are considered overweight. There are exceptions. For example, an athlete may have a higher BMI but not be overweight.
• Adults with a BMI greater than 30 are considered obese.
• Anyone more than 100 pounds overweight is considered morbidly obese.

Causes

• Alcohol use
• Certain drugs such as corticosteroids, cyproheptadine, lithium, tranquilizers, phenothiazines, some antidepressants, and medicines that increase fluid retention and cause edema
• Cushing syndrome
• Eating too much and exercising too little
• Emotional factors such as guilt, depression, and anxiety
• High-carbohydrate, high-calorie diet
• Hypothyroidism
• Polycystic ovary syndrome
• Slower metabolism, which is normal with aging
• Quitting smoking

Risk factors:

Rates of obesity are climbing. The percentage of children who are overweight has doubled in the last 20 years. The percentage of adolescents who are obese has tripled in the last 20 years.

Consuming more calories than you burn leads to being overweight and, eventually, obesity. The body stores unused calories as fat. Obesity can be the result of:

• Eating more food than the body can use
• Drinking too much alcohol
• Not getting enough exercise

Certain thyroid problems may also lead to signficant weight gain. Genetic factors play some part in the development of obesity -- children of obese parents are 10 times more likely to be obese than children with parents of normal weight.

Obesity is a significant health threat. The extra weight puts unusual stress on all parts of the body. It raises your risk of diabetes, stroke, heart disease, kidney disease, and gallbladder disease. Conditions such as high blood pressure and high cholesterol, which were once thought to mainly affect adults, are often seen in children who are obese. Obesity may also increase the risk for some types of cancer. Persons who are obese are more likely to develop osteoarthritis and sleep apnea.

Signs and tests:

The health care provider will perform a physical exam and ask questions about your medical history, eating habits, and exercise routine.

Skin fold measurements may be taken to check your body composition.

Blood tests may be done to look for thyroid or endocrine problems, which could lead to weight gain.

When to Contact a Medical Professional

Contact your health care provider if the following symptoms occur along with the weight gain:

• Constipation
• Excessive weight gain without a known cause
• Hair loss
• Sensitivity to cold
• Swollen feet and shortness of breath
• Uncontrollable hunger accompanied by palpitations, tremor, and sweating
• Vision changes

Treatment:

A combination of calorie restriction and exercise (when adhered to) appears to be more effective rather than either one alone. Sticking to a weight reduction program is difficult and requires a lot of support from family and friends.

Even modest weight loss can improve your health. It is important to work with your health care provider or dietician to develop a plan that is best for you. For most people, weight can be lost by eating a healthier diet, exercising more, and adopting new behaviors such as keeping a food diary, avoiding food triggers, and thinking positively.

There are many over-the-counter diet products. Most do not work and some can be dangerous. Before using one, talk to your health care provider.

Prescription weight loss drugs are available. Such medicines include subutramine (Meridia) and orlistat (Xenical). Ask your health care provider if these are right for you.

Surgery may be an option for persons who are morbidly obese and who cannot lose weight using other methods. Weight loss surgery, such as placing adjustable bands around the stomach and gastric bypass surgery, can significantly improve weight and health in the right candidate. Talk to your doctor to learn if this is a good option for you.

Complications

Medical problems commonly resulting from untreated obesity and morbid obesity include:

• Diabetes
• Hypertension
• Heart disease
• Stroke
• Certain cancers, including breast and colon
• Depression
• Osteoarthritis

Obesity can lead to a gradual decrease in the level of oxygen in your blood, a condition called hypoxemia. Persons who are obese may temporarily stop breathing while asleep (sleep apnea). Decreased blood oxygen levels and sleep apnea may cause a person to feel sleepy during the day. The conditions may also lead to high blood pressure and pulmonary hypertension. In extreme cases, especially when left untreated, this can lead to right-sided heart failure and ultimately death.

You've tried diets, but you always gain the weight back. What can you do?

Focus on health, not diets. Diets are hard to maintain and usually do not work in the long run. It is very hard to stay with a diet that includes lots of big changes in your eating habits.

Malaria

What is malaria?

Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a parasite, Plasmodium, which infects red blood cells. Malaria is characterized by cycles of chills, fever, pain and sweating. Historical records suggest malaria has infected humans since the beginning of mankind. The name "mal 'aria" (meaning "bad air" in Italian) was first used in English in 1740 by H. Walpole when describing the disease. The term was shortened to "malaria" in the 20th century. C. Laveran in 1880 was the first to identify the parasites in human blood. In 1889, R. Ross discovered that mosquitoes transmitted malaria. Of the four species of malaria, the most serious type is Plasmodium falciparum malaria. It can be life-threatening. The other three species of malaria (P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. ovale) are generally less serious and are not life-threatening.

How is malaria transmitted?

The life cycle of the parasite is complicated (for life cycle details, see http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/biology/life_cycle.htm) and involves two hosts, humans and Anopheles mosquitoes. The disease is transmitted to humans when an infected Anopheles mosquito bites a person and injects the malaria parasites (sporozoites) into the blood. Sporozoites travel through the bloodstream to the liver, mature, and eventually infect the human red blood cells. While in red blood cells, the parasites again develop until a mosquito takes a blood meal from an infected human and ingests human red blood cells containing the parasites. Then the parasites reach the Anopheles mosquito's stomach and eventually invade the mosquito salivary glands. When an Anopheles mosquito bites a human, these sporozoites complete and repeat the complex Plasmodium life cycle. P. ovale and P. vivax can further complicate the cycle by producing dormant stages (hypnozoites) that may not develop for weeks to years.

Where is malaria a particular problem?

Malaria is a particular problem and a major one in areas of Asia, Africa, and Central and South America. Unless precautions are taken, anyone living in or traveling to a country where malaria is present can get the disease. Malaria occurs in about 100 countries; approximately 40% of the world population is at risk for contracting malaria. To get information on countries that have current malaria infection problems, the CDC (Centers for Disease Control) has a constantly updated website that lists the problem areas in detail: http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/travel/index.htm#riskareas.

What are the signs and symptoms of malaria?

The symptoms characteristic of malaria include flu-like illness with fever, chills, muscle aches, and headache. Some patients develop nausea, vomiting, cough, and diarrhea. Cycles of chills, fever, and sweating that repeat every one, two, or three days are typical. There can sometimes be vomiting, diarrhea, coughing, and yellowing (jaundice) of the skin and whites of the eyes due to destruction of red blood cells and liver cells.

People with severe P. falciparum malaria can develop bleeding problems, shock, liver or kidney failure, central nervous system problems, coma, and can die from the infection or its complications. Cerebral malaria (coma, or altered mental status or seizures) can occur with severe P. falciparum infection. It is lethal if not treated quickly; even with treatment, about 15%-20% die.

Female mosquitoes

Female mosquitoes transmit the parasite because they take blood from the bitten victim. Male mosquitoes do not take blood from the victim.

After the mosquito ingests the parasite, it takes about a week to ten days or so for that mosquito to become infective.

Complications of Malaria

Malaria is treatable and should be taken very seriously. If left untreated the infected person can develop infection in the brain, so-called cerebral malaria, and result with fever and coma.

How is malaria treated?

Three main factors determine treatments: the infecting species of Plasmodium parasite, the clinical situation of the patient (for example, adult, child, or pregnant female with either mild or severe malaria), and the drug susceptibility of the infecting parasites. Drug susceptibility is determined by the geographic area where the infection was acquired.

Different areas of the world have malaria types that are resistant to certain medications. The correct drugs for each type of malaria must be prescribed by a doctor who is familiar with malaria treatment protocols. Since people infected with P. falciparum malaria can die (often because of delayed treatment), immediate treatment for P. falciparum malaria is necessary.

Mild malaria can be treated with oral medication; severe malaria (one or more symptoms of either impaired consciousness/coma, severe anemia, renal failure, pulmonary edema, acute respiratory distress syndrome, shock, disseminated intravascular coagulation, spontaneous bleeding, acidosis, hemoglobinuria [hemoglobin in the urine], jaundice, repeated generalized convulsions, and/or parasitemia [parasites in the blood] of > 5%) requires intravenous (IV) drug treatment and fluids.

Drug treatment of malaria is not always easy. Chloroquine phosphate is the drug of choice for all malarial parasites except for chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium strains. Although almost all strains of P. malariae are susceptible to chloroquine, P. falciparum, P. vivax and even some P. ovale strains have been reported as resistant to chloroquine. Unfortunately, resistance is usually noted by drug-treatment failure in the individual patient. There are, however, multiple drug-treatment protocols for treatment of drug resistant Plasmodium strains (for example, quinine sulfate plus doxycycline [Vibramycin, Oracea, Adoxa, Atridox] or tetracycline [Achromycin], or clindamycin [Cleocin], or atovaquone-proguanil [Malarone]). There are specialized labs that can test the patient's parasites for resistance, but this is not done frequently. Consequently, treatment is usually based on the majority of Plasmodium species diagnosed and its general drug-resistance pattern for the country or world region where the patient became infested. For example, P. falciparum acquired in the Middle East countries is usually susceptible to chloroquine, but if acquired in sub-Sahara African countries, is usually resistant to chloroquine.

Is malaria a particular problem during pregnancy?

Yes. Malaria may pose a serious threat to a pregnant woman and her pregnancy. Malaria infection in pregnant women may be more severe than in women who are not pregnant. Malaria may also increase the risk of problems with the pregnancy, including prematurity, abortion, and stillbirth. Statistics indicate that in sub-Saharan Africa, between 75,000-200,000 infants die from malaria per year; worldwide estimates indicate over 1 million children die from malaria each year. Therefore, all pregnant women who are living in or traveling to a malaria-risk area should consult a doctor and take prescription drugs (for example, sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine) to avoid contracting malaria. Treatment of malaria in the pregnant female is similar to the usual treatment described above; however, drugs such as primaquine (Primaquine), tetracycline (Achromycin, Sumycin), doxycycline, and halofantrine (Halfan) are not recommended as they may harm the fetus. In addition to monitoring the patient for anemia, an OB-GYN specialist is consulted for further management.

Is malaria a particular problem for children?

Yes. All children, including young infants, living in or traveling to malaria-risk areas should take antimalarial drugs (for example, chloroquine and mefloquine [Lariam]). Although the recommendations for most antimalarial drugs are the same as for adults, it is crucial to use the correct dosage for the child. The dosage of drug depends on the age and weight of the child. Since an overdose of an antimalarial drug can be fatal, all antimalarial (and all other) drugs should be stored in childproof containers well out of the child's reach.

How do I keep from getting malaria?

If you are traveling to an area known to have malaria, find out which medications you need to take, and take them as prescribed. Current CDC recommendations suggest individuals begin taking antimalarial drugs about one to two weeks before traveling to a malaria infested area and for four weeks after leaving the area. Your doctor, travel clinic, or the health department can advise you as to what medicines to take to keep from getting malaria. Currently, there is no vaccine available for malaria, but researchers are trying to develop one.

Yellow Fever.

What is Yellow Fever?

Yellow fever is a viral tropical disease that is spread to humans by infected mosquitoes. The disease is caused by a virus. Most yellow fever infections are mild. However, the disease can cause severe, life-threatening illness. Yellow fever is found only in parts of Africa and South America. Yellow fever has caused large epidemics in Africa and Northern and Southern America.

Yellow fever is characterized by fever, jaundice, and hemorrhage.

Kinds of Yellow Fever

There are two kinds of Yellow Fever: jungle (Sylvatic) yellow fever and urban yellow fever. Jungle Yellow fever usually occurs in monkeys. It is spread from infected monkeys to humans by the bite of an infected female mosquito. Jungle Yellow fever is rare and usually occurs in individuals who work in tropical rain forests.

Urban Yellow Fever is a disease that usually occurs in humans. It is spread by the bite of an infected female mosquito that have infected other people. They type of mosquito that usually carries the yellow fever is called Aedes aegypti. Urban yellow fever is the cause of most yellow fever outbreaks.

Female and not male

Female mosquitoes transmit the virus because they take blood from the bitten victim. Male mosquitoes do not take blood from the victim. After the mosquito ingests the virus, it takes about a week to ten days or so for that mosquito to become infective.

Can Yellow Fever be prevented?

Yes. Yellow fever is preventable by immunization. Travelers to countries with yellow fever should get the yellow fever.

Vaccination is a means of producing immunity against pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, by the introduction of live, killed, or altered antigens that stimulate the body to produce antibodies against more dangerous forms.

Symptoms of Yellow Fever

There are many symptoms of yellow fever. The symptoms vary from person to person and one person may not experience all of the symptoms.

Some of the most common symptoms of yellow fever are:

• high fever
• chills
• headache
• muscle aches
• vomiting
• backache

Symptoms of yellow fever usually appear between 3 and 6 days after being infected by a mosquito.

Yellow fever must be monitored by a doctor. After a brief recovery period, the infection may lead to shock, bleeding, and kidney and liver failure.

How is Yellow Fever diagnosed?

Yellow fever is diagnosed by a blood test.

Who is at risk for Yellow Fever?

People are at risk when they travel to an area where there is yellow fever in humans or monkeys and there are mosquitoes to spread the virus.

Complications of Yellow Fever

Severe yellow fever infections can be fatal.

Can Yellow Fever be Treated?

Rest is the usual treatment. Where as fever reaches its peak and then drops.

Reference:

http://www.mamashealth.com

Lassa Virus!

What causes Lassa fever?

The reservoir, or host, of Lassa virus is a rodent known as the "multimammate rat" of the genus Mastomys. It is not certain which species of Mastomys are associated with Lassa; however, at least two species carry the virus in Sierra Leone: M. huberti and M. erythroleucus. Mastomys rodents breed very frequently, produce large numbers of offspring, and are numerous in the savannas and forests of West, Central, and East Africa. In addition, some species, like M. huberti, prefer to live in human homes. All these factors together contribute to the relatively efficient spread of Lassa virus from infected rodents to humans.

Tests and diagnosis discussion for Lassa fever:

Lassa fever is most often diagnosed by using enzyme-linked immunosorbent serologic assays (ELISA), which detect IgM and IgG antibodies as well as Lassa antigen. The virus itself may be cultured in 7 to 10 days. Immunohistochemistry performed on tissue specimens can be used to make a post-mortem diagnosis. The virus can also be detected

Routine studies include a CBC, sedimentation rate, chemistry panel, urinalysis, chest x-rays, VDRL test, and tuberculin skin test. Serial blood cultures should be done on all patients. Febrile agglutinins usually should be done. An ASO titer or streptozyme test should be done to exclude rheumatic fever. RNA, ANA, and DNA tests should be done to look for lupus and other connective tissue disease. An HIV antibody titer may need to be ordered.

The next step is to culture any discharge or various body fluids that might be suspect. Thus, a urinalysis and urine culture should be done. A nose and throat culture should be done. A sputum smear and culture may need to be done. The next consideration is to do various serologic tests. A heterophile antibody titer should be done in teenagers. Febrile agglutinin tests may need to be done. Acute and convalescent phase sera for viral studies may need to be done.

Next one should do skin testing. Thus, histoplasmin, coccidioidin, and blastomycin skin testing should be done on patients with a cough. Trichinella skin testing may need to be done, as well as brucellin skin testing. A Kveim test might need to be done for suspected sarcoidosis.

The next step is to do plain x-rays of suspected areas. For instance, x-rays of the teeth may disclose an abscessed tooth. X-rays of the long bones may disclose a metastatic carcinoma.

The next step is contrast x-ray studies of various organ systems. An intravenous pyelogram may show a hypernephroma. A cholecystogram may show gallstones. An upper GI series and barium enema may show chronic pancreatitis or diverticulitis. Angiography may disclose periarteritis nodosa, aortitis or giant cell arteritis.

The next step is to do a CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis. If this is negative, consider a CT scan of the chest and mediastinum. Echocardiography may disclose valvular vegetations or an atrial myxoma.

Next, consider biopsying various organ systems. For instances, a lymph node biopsy may disclose a lymphoma or sarcoidosis. A muscle biopsy may disclose periarteritis nodosa, polymyositis, or trichinella.

Next one should do bone scans and gallium scans for possible metastasis, osteomyelitis, or localized abscesses.

If all these procedures fail to turn up a lesion, then an exploratory laparotomy may need to be done. A fibrin test may indicate Mediterranean fever, or urine for etiocholanolone may also indicate a relapsing type of fever. A urine test for porphobilinogen may diagnose porphyria.

The wisest move is to conduct this investigation with the help of an infectious disease specialist or a specialist in the body organ system most likely suspected of harboring the infection.

by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction

Symptoms:

Lassa fever is an acute viral illness caused by Lassa virus, which is hosted by rodents in the Mastomys natalensis species complex and rarely imported to countries outside of those areas in Africa where the disease is endemic (1). Lassa fever is characterized by fever, muscle aches, sore throat, nausea, vomiting, and chest and abdominal pain. Approximately 15%--20% of patients hospitalized for Lassa fever die from the illness; however, approximately 80% of human infections with Lassa virus are mild or asymptomatic, and 1% of infections overall result in death (1). On August 28, 2004, a man aged 38 years residing in New Jersey died from Lassa fever after returning from travel to West Africa. This report summarizes the clinical and epidemiologic investigations conducted by federal, state, and local public health agencies. The findings illustrate the need for clinicians and public health officials to remain alert to emerging infectious diseases and to institute appropriate measures to promptly identify and limit spread of unusual pathogens.

Investigation:

An investigation was conducted to identify persons who might have had direct contact with the patient or his body fluids while he was ill. Contacts were categorized into low- and high-risk categories on the basis of multiple criteria (Box).

A total of 188 persons had contact with the patient during the period when he was likely infectious; of these, five persons were classified as at high risk and 183 as at low risk. The five at high risk were the patient's wife, three of their children, and the patient's brother, who was a hospital visitor; each reportedly had unprotected exposure to the patient's body fluids during his illness. Contacts at low risk included nine other family members, 139 health-care workers employed at the Trenton hospital (including 42 laboratory workers, 32 nurses, and 11 physicians), and 16 laboratory workers employed at commercial laboratories in Virginia and California. In addition, 19 contacts at low risk were exposed as passengers on the flight from London to Newark.

The NJDHSS notified CDC's Division of Global Migration and Quarantine (DGMQ) of possible travel-related exposures. Because the patient reported illness onset 3 days before air travel, DGMQ searched for those airline passengers who had been seated within 6 feet of the patient. Passengers were traced by using information from travel reservation records and customs declaration forms. Nineteen passengers seated near the patient were identified (Figure 2). Within 5 days of notification, 13 of the 19 passengers had been interviewed; within 8 days, three more had been contacted. The remaining three could not be contacted. Seventeen of 19 passengers were citizens of the United Kingdom, and authorities in that country were notified; two of the passengers were U.S. citizens. Interviewed passengers did not report contact with the patient's body fluids and were considered to have low-risk exposure. All passengers contacted were healthy; none reported fever as of September 14, which marked the end of the 21-day incubation period for Lassa fever for this group.

All contacts at high risk (i.e., five family members) were monitored for temperature of >101^ºF (>38.3^ºC) twice daily for 21 days after their last potential exposure to the patient on August 28. A public health nurse visited the family contacts each morning and recorded their temperatures. In the afternoon, the contacts recorded their own temperatures and reported the results.

The majority of contacts at low risk (i.e., nine other family members and 139 health-care workers) were instructed to record their own temperatures at least twice daily and report the results. Other contacts at low risk (i.e., the 16 laboratory workers and 19 air passengers) were asked to self monitor for temperature of >101^ºF (>38.3^ºC) and other symptoms compatible with Lassa fever.

No restriction was placed on work or movement for asymptomatic adults at either high or low risk. However, to facilitate monitoring, the patient's children were restricted from participating in school activities. None of the contacts at high risk reported any illness compatible with Lassa fever as of September 18, which ended their 21-day incubation period.

BEAT THE HEAT

Heat related Illness:

During a heat wave, it's important to know and be able to recognize the signs and symptoms of a heat-related illness. There are different types of heat-related illnesses, ranging from those that cause temporary discomfort to the generally fatal condition known as heat stroke. In all heat-related illnesses, the symptoms appear when a person is exposed to extreme temperatures.

The following checklist can help you recognize the symptoms of heat-related illnesses:

1. Heat Rash: Heat rash is a skin irritation caused by excessive sweating during hot, humid weather. It can occur at any age but is most common in young children. Heat rash looks like a red cluster of pimples or small blisters. For more, please read the Heat Rash article.

2. Heat cramps: A person who has been exercising or participating in other types of strenuous activity in the heat may develop painful muscle spasms in the arms, legs, or abdomen. The body temperature is usually normal, and the skin will feel moist and cool, but sweaty. For more, please read the Heat Cramps article.

3. Heat syncope: Someone who experiences heat syncope (fainting) will experience the sudden onset of dizziness or fainting after exposure to high temperatures, particularly after exercising in the heat. As with heat cramps, the skin is pale and sweaty but remains cool. The pulse may be weakened, and the heart rate is usually rapid. Body temperature is normal.

4. Heat exhaustion: Heat exhaustion is a warning that the body is getting too hot. Those most prone to heat exhaustion include elderly people, people with high blood pressure, and people working or exercising in a hot environment. A person with heat exhaustion may be thirsty, giddy, weak, uncoordinated, nauseous, and sweating profusely. As with heat syncope and heat cramps, the body temperature is usually normal in heat exhaustion. The heart rate (pulse rate) is normal or elevated. The skin is usually cold and clammy. For more, please read the Heat Exhaustion article.

5. Heat stroke: Heat stroke is a serious, life-threatening condition that occurs when the body loses its ability to control its temperature. Victims of heat stroke almost always die, so immediate medical attention is essential when problems first begin. In heat stroke, a person develops a fever that rapidly rises to dangerous levels within minutes. A person with heat stroke usually has a body temperature above 104° F, but the temperature may rise even higher. Other symptoms and signs of heat stroke may include confusion, combativeness, bizarre behavior, feeling faint, staggering, strong rapid pulse, dry flushed skin, and lack of sweating. Delirium or coma can also result from heat stroke. For more, please read the Heat Stroke article.

While heat cramps, heat syncope, and heat exhaustion may all be present in mild degrees, you should always contact a doctor or seek emergency medical attention if the symptoms of these conditions are severe or worsen with time. Heat stroke is a true medical emergency. If a person has the symptoms of heat stroke, you should notify emergency services (911) immediately.

Dehydration and Heat Stroke

The danger of dehydration and heat stroke:

Dehydration and heat stroke are two very common heat-related diseases that can be life-threatening if left untreated.

What is dehydration?

Dehydration can be a serious heat-related disease, as well as being a dangerous side-effect of diarrhea, vomiting and fever. Children and persons over the age of 60 are particularly susceptible to dehydration.

What causes dehydration?

Under normal conditions, we all lose body water daily through sweat, tears, urine and stool. In a healthy person, this water is replaced by drinking fluids and eating foods that contain water. When a person becomes so sick with fever, diarrhea, or vomiting or if an individual is overexposed to the sun, dehydration occurs. This is caused when the body loses water content and essential body salts such as sodium, potassium, calcium bicarbonate and phosphate.

Occasionally, dehydration can be caused by drugs, such as diuretics, which deplete body fluids and electrolytes. Whatever the cause, dehydration should be treated as soon as possible.

What are the symptoms of dehydration?

The following are the most common symptoms of dehydration, although each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

• thirst
• less-frequent urination
• dry skin
• fatigue
• light-headedness
• dizziness
• confusion
• dry mouth and mucous membranes
• increased heart rate and breathing

In children, additional symptoms may include:

• dry mouth and tongue
• no tears when crying
• no wet diapers for more than 3 hours
• sunken abdomen, eyes or cheeks
• high fever
• listlessness
• irritability
• skin that does not flatten when pinched and released

Treatment for dehydration:

If caught early, dehydration can often be treated at home under a physician's guidance. In children, directions for giving food and fluids will differ according to the cause of the dehydration, so it is important to consult your pediatrician.

In cases of mild dehydration, simple rehydration is recommended by drinking fluids. Many sports drinks on the market effectively restore body fluids, electrolytes, and salt balance.

For moderate dehydration, intravenous fluids may be required, although if caught early enough, simple rehydration may be effective. Cases of serious dehydration should be treated as a medical emergency, and hospitalization, along with intravenous fluids, is necessary. Immediate action should be taken.

How can dehydration be prevented?

Take precautionary measures to avoid the harmful effects of dehydration, including:

• Drink plenty of fluids, especially when working or playing in the sun.
• Make sure you are taking in more fluid than you are losing.
• Try to schedule physical outdoor activities for the cooler parts of the day.
• Drink appropriate sports drinks to help maintain electrolyte balance.
• For infants and young children, solutions like Pedialyte will help maintain electrolyte balance during illness or heat exposure. Do not try to make fluid and salt solutions at home for children.

What is heat stroke?

Heat stroke is the most severe form of heat illness and is a life-threatening emergency. It is the result of long, extreme exposure to the sun, in which a person does not sweat enough to lower body temperature. The elderly, infants, persons who work outdoors and those on certain types of medications are most susceptible to heat stroke. It is a condition that develops rapidly and requires immediate medical treatment.

What causes heat stroke?

Our bodies produce a tremendous amount of internal heat and we normally cool ourselves by sweating and radiating heat through the skin. However, in certain circumstances, such as extreme heat, high humidity or vigorous activity in the hot sun, this cooling system may begin to fail, allowing heat to build up to dangerous levels.

If a person becomes dehydrated and can not sweat enough to cool their body, their internal temperature may rise to dangerously high levels, causing heat stroke.

What are the symptoms of heat stroke?

The following are the most common symptoms of heat stroke, although each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:

• headache
• dizziness
• disorientation, agitation or confusion
• sluggishness or fatigue
• seizure
• hot, dry skin that is flushed but not sweaty
• a high body temperature
• loss of consciousness
• rapid heart beat
• hallucinations

How is heat stroke treated?

It is important for the person to be treated immediately as heat stroke can cause permanent damage or death. There are some immediate first aid measures you can take while waiting for help to arrive.

• Get the person indoors.
• Remove clothing and gently apply cool water to the skin followed by fanning to stimulate sweating.
• Apply ice packs to the groin and armpits.
• Have the person lie down in a cool area with their feet slightly elevated

Intravenous fluids are often necessary to compensate for fluid or electrolyte loss. Bed rest is generally advised and body temperature may fluctuate abnormally for weeks after heat stroke.

How can heat stroke be prevented?

There are precautions that can help protect you against the adverse effects of heat stroke. These include:

• Drink plenty of fluids during outdoor activities, especially on hot days. Water and sports drinks are the drinks of choice; avoid tea, coffee, soda and alcohol as these can lead to dehydration.
  
  
• Wear lightweight, tightly woven, loose-fitting clothing in light colors.
  
  
• Schedule vigorous activity and sports for cooler times of the day.
  
  
• Protect yourself from the sun by wearing a hat, sunglasses and using an umbrella.
  
  
• Increase time spent outdoors gradually to get your body used to the heat.
  
  
• During outdoor activities, take frequent drink breaks and mist yourself with a spray bottle to avoid becoming overheated.
  
  
• Try to spend as much time indoors as possible on very hot and humid days.

If you live in a hot climate and have a chronic condition, talk to your physician about extra precautions you can take to protect yourself against heat stroke.

Senior Citizens Summer Safety Tips:

The US Center For Disease Control (CDC) estimates that every year around 300 people in the US die from heat related ailments. In addition thousands of American citizens suffer from dehydration, heat stroke and heat exhaustion. Summer season draws senior citizens as well as our youth. outdoor activities with family and friends. Senior citizens are more susceptible to the effects of heat as their bodies return to normal slowly and their bodies cooling mechanism is not as efficient as younger people. Hence seniors should be well aware of the health problems related to summer heat and the preventive and safety steps that they should take to avoid these problems.

Here we will discuss some important summer safety tips for seniors. The first thing to know is that the faster you move the faster your body gets heated up. Hence seniors should take it slow in the summer, especially when it is hot. All outdoor activities should be planned for early mornings when it is cooler. As mush as possible, use the shaded areas under trees or covered porches. If possible air conditioning should be used when it is very hot and fans are not enough. If air conditioning is not available at home consider visiting public places like shopping malls, libraries, etc., that have air conditioning.

Proper ventilation is essential so that the temperature and humidity do not become very high. In places where there are no fans or air conditioning it may be dangerous if temperature rises above 90 °F. Some seniors prefer to keep windows closed for security reasons even when cool breeze is blowing. This problem can be easily solved by installing safety latches for windows so that they cannot be opened from outside but will allow air to enter. They are inexpensive and bought at local hardware stores.

Seniors should plan ahead for outings. Every one, especially seniors, should wear light colored, loose fitting, cool clothing (preferably cotton) and use head coverings like hats or caps. As the seniors skin is sensitive they should use high SPF sun blocks (30+) and avoid direct sun as much as possible by seeking out shaded spots. Seniors should avoid caffeine and alcoholic beverages as much as possible as they accelerate dehydration. Drinking just plain water may not be adequate as the body also loses sodium and potassium salts through sweating. The popular sports drinks can be used for this purpose or you can drink a home made one.

A Quick recepie:

To make a homemade rehydration drink mix half teaspoon table salt, 3-4 tablespoons sugar, half teaspoon baking soda and a quarter teaspoon Salt Lite or other salt substitute in a quart (950 ml) water. This home made drink is not suitable for children under 12. Beware of exhaustion symptoms which include mild nausea, lightheadedness, faintheadedness, vomiting, clammy or cold hands and excessive sweating. The symptoms of heat stroke include strong pulse, body temperature above 104 °F, hot, dry skin and mental confusion. Contact your local medical emergency team or 911 immediately when heat stroke symptoms are detected as the patient needs immediate medical attention. In the meanwhile keep giving rehydrating fluids. These summer safety tips for senior citizens can help prevent most heat related health problems faced by them.

References:
http://www.medicinenet.com
http://www.associatedcontent.com

How Daylight Saving Time Affect Your Health?

How it starts?

The sage of Philadelphia conceived of a system similar to daylight saving time in 1784 while serving as America’s first ambassador to France. In a letter to the editor of the Paris Journal, he estimated that the simple act of awakening at sunrise and retiring at sunset in the months between spring and fall would result in an annual saving of a little more than 64 million pounds in candle wax for Paris’s residents.

Further Studies illustrates:

Conserving energy has always been the object of daylight saving time, of course. Yet Matthew Kotchen, a professor of environmental economics at the University of California, Santa Barbara, and Laura Grant, a doctoral student, argued in a recent study that it may increase residential electricity demand.

They studied 7 million electric bills over three years in Indiana where for decades 77 counties chose to skip the spring ahead and fall behind. In 2006, the State Legislature ended the boycott, and the Hoosiers seem to have the last laugh. Against intuition and contrary to the entire point of government policy, the study found that daylight saving time resulted in an $8.6 million increase in spending on residential electricity.

But don’t count out Ben. Those Indiana residents used more power, but for heat and air conditioning — something far beyond the capabilities of 18th-century tallow. The researchers found that the power used for lighting declined significantly in every month but October. Mr. Franklin proposed ending the program on Sept. 20.

Mr. Franklin, brilliant as he was, hardly envisioned Nintendos and computers, big-screen televisions and dishwashers. He wanted, he wrote, the “pure light of the sun” to help him escape the “smokey, unwholesome and enormously expensive light of candles.”

He never took his idea too seriously. In the same letter he suggested that, if necessary, cannons be shot off at sunrise to ensure that laggards get out of bed, and described a friend’s insistence that opening the shutters to greet the dawn lets out the darkness rather than bringing in the light.

Adding more light, of course, makes many people feel better. At this time of year, the early sun that moved Franklin, and now makes my basil branch out from its pot on my kitchen window, is a sweet sign that late winter’s days are numbered. Maybe cannons are called for after all — to celebrate.

by MAURA J. CASEY (http://www.nytimes.com)

Keeping in View:

A quarter of the world's population is subjected to a 1 hr time change twice a year (daylight saving time, DST). This reflects a change in social clocks, not environmental ones (e.g., dawn). The impact of DST is poorly understood. Circadian clocks use daylight to synchronize (entrain) to the organism's environment. Entrainment is so exact that humans adjust to the east-west progression of dawn within a given time zone. In a large survey (n = 55,000), we show that the timing of sleep on free days follows the seasonal progression of dawn under standard time, but not under DST. In a second study, we analyzed the timing of sleep and activity for 8 weeks around each DST transition in 50 subjects who were chronotyped (analyzed for their individual phase of entrainment). Both parameters readily adjust to the release from DST in autumn but the timing of activity does not adjust to the DST imposition in spring, especially in late chronotypes. Our data indicate that the human circadian system does not adjust to DST and that its seasonal adaptation to the changing photoperiods is disrupted by the introduction of summer time. This disruption may extend to other aspects of seasonal biology in humans.

Major Health Issues:

Daylight saving time, which began this week in most of the United States, has long been promoted as a way to save energy. Whether it does is still a matter of debate. But it does seem clear from studies that a one-hour time adjustment can have unintended health consequences.

It seems that when the clock is moved forward or back one hour, the body’s internal clock — its circadian rhythm, which uses daylight to stay in tune with its environment — does not adjust. In a study of 55,000 people, for example, scientists found that on days off from work, subjects tended to sleep on standard time, not daylight time: their waking hour followed the seasonal progression of dawn.

In other studies, scientists tracked large groups of people for eight weeks at a time as they made the transitions to daylight time in spring and to standard time in autumn. They found that in spring, people’s peak activity levels were more in tune with their body clock than with the actual clock. Studies suggest that this disconnect between body time and clock time can result in restlessness, sleep disruption and shorter sleep duration. Other studies have suggested links between time change and increases in heart attacks, suicides and accidents, though scientists say more study is needed.

THE BOTTOM LINE

Daylight saving time is associated with sleep disruptions and possibly more serious consequences.

Reality Bites!!!

Winemaking, or vinification, is the production of wine, starting with selection of the grapes or other produce and ending with bottling the finished wine. Although most wine is made from grapes, it may also be made from other fruit or non-toxic plant material. Mead is a wine that is made with honey being the primary ingredient after water.

Winemaking can be divided into two general categories: still wine production (without carbonation) and sparkling wine production (with carbonation).

The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology (in American English, enology).




More Loss:
The health effects of wine are the subject of considerable ongoing study. In the USA, a boom in red wine consumption was initiated . The French paradox refers to the lower incidence of coronary heart disease in France than in the USA despite high levels of saturated fat in the traditional French diet. Epidemiologists suspect that this difference is attributed to the high consumption of wines by the French, however this suspicion is based on limited scientific evidence.

A series of population studies have observed a J curve association between wine consumption and the risk of heart disease.This means that abstainers and heavy drinkers have an elevated risk, whilst moderate drinkers have a lower risk. Population studies have also found that moderate consumption of other alcoholic beverages may be cardioprotective, though the association is considerably stronger for wine. These studies have found a protective effect from both red wine as well as white wine, though evidence from laboratory studies suggests that red wine may posess superior health benefits.

A chemical called resveratrol is thought to be at least partly responsible for red wines' health benefits, as it has been shown to exert a range of both cardioprotective as well as chemoprotective mechanisms in animal studies.Resveratrol is produced naturally by grape skins in response to fungal infection, which includes exposure to yeast during fermentation. As white wine has minimal contact with grape skins during this process, it generally contains lower levels of resveratrol. Other beneficial compounds in wine include other polyphenols, antioxidants, and flavonoids.

Whilst evidence from both laboratory studies as well as
epidemiology suggests wines' cardioprotective effect, no evidence from controlled experiments - of which long-term studies are still ongoing - currently exists to determine the specific effect of wine or other alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Moreover, excessive consumption of alcohol including wine can cause some diseases including cirrhosis of the liver and alcoholism Also the American Heart Association cautions people "not to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation"

LESS BENEFIT:

LONDON: Drinking up to half a glass of wine per day can help you live up to five years longer — at least for men, according to a study published Thursday.

The impact also depends on the exact amount drunk — more than half a glass starts bringing life expectancy down again, according to researchers from Wageningen University in the Netherlands, reports Reuters.

‘Drinking wine was strongly associated with a lower risk of dying from coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, and death from all causes,’ said the study.

Effects varied, however: men who drink up to 20 grammes of any type of alcohol per day live for about two years longer than non-drinkers, while the length of time is slightly lesser for those drinking more than 20 grammes.

Those drinking only wine, and less than half a glass a day, lived some 2.5 years longer than those who drank beer and spirits, and almost five years longer than non-drinkers, said the study.

The study, published in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, was based on research on some 1,373 men between 1960 and 2000. It did not draw conclusions for women.

The researchers studied how much alcohol they drank and what type, in an attempt to assess the impact of their drinking habits on cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, and from all causes.

They also tracked weight and diet and whether the men smoked.

The results held true regardless of socio-economic status, diet or lifestyle, it found.

One finding which might seem surprising: the proportion of men drinking alcohol nearly doubled over the four decades, from 45 per cent in 1960 to 86 per cent in 2000.

The proportion of those drinking wine skyrocketed, from two per cent to 44 per cent over the period.

Thursday, 30 Apr, 2009 | 08:23 PM PST | http://www.dawn.com

In a nutshell
(according to the Muslim Beliefs)
Al-Baqara 2:219
They question thee about drink and games of chance. Say: In both is great sin, and (some) utility for men; but the sin of them is greater than their usefulness.

Translation by Pickthall

Psychology! the science of the mind

What is psychology?

• Psychology: the science of the mind
• How do psychologists study the mind?
• Human behaviour: the raw data of psychology
• Psychology and other disciplines
• Branches of psychology

Psychology: the science of the mind

Psychology is the science of the mind. The human mind is the most complex machine on Earth. It is the source of all thought and behaviour.

How do psychologists study the mind?

But how can we study something as complex and mysterious as the mind? Even if we were to split open the skull of a willing volunteer and have a look inside, we would only see the gloopy grey matter of the brain. We cannot see someone thinking. Nor can we observe their emotions, or memories, or perceptions and dreams. So how do psychologists go about studying the mind?

In fact, psychologists adopt a similar approach to scientists in other fields. Nuclear physicists interested in the structure of atoms cannot observe protons, electrons and neutrons directly. Instead, they predict how these elements should behave and devise experiments to confirm or refute their expectations.

Human behaviour: the raw data of psychology

In a similar way, psychologists use human behaviour as a clue to the workings of the mind. Although we cannot observe the mind directly, everything we do, think, feel and say is determined by the functioning of the mind. So psychologists take human behaviour as the raw data for testing their theories about how the mind works.

Since the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) opened the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig in 1879, we have learned an enormous amount about the relationship between brain, mind and behaviour.

Psychology and other disciplines

Psychology lies at the intersection of many other different disciplines, including biology, medicine, linguistics, philosophy, anthropology, sociology, and artificial intelligence (AI).

For example, neuropsychology is allied with biology, since the aim is to map different areas of the brain and explain how each underpins different brain functions like memory or language. Other branches of psychology are more closely connected with medicine. Health psychologists help people manage disease and pain. Similarly, clinical psychologists help alleviate the suffering caused by mental disorders.

Branches of psychology

Any attempt to explain why humans think and behave in the way that they do will inevitably be linked to one or another branch of psychology. The different disciplines of psychology are extremely wide-ranging. They include:

• Clinical psychology
• Cognitive psychology: memory
• Cognitive psychology: intelligence
• Developmental psychology
• Evolutionary psychology
• Forensic psychology
• Health psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Occupational psychology
• Social psychology

What all these different approaches to psychology have in common is a desire to explain the behaviour of individuals based on the workings of the mind. And in every area, psychologists apply scientific methodology. They formulate theories, test hypotheses through observation and experiment, and analyse the findings with statistical techniques that help them identify important findings.

Explore your memory

Stretch your memory with fun challenges designed by experts. Your answers will help University of Edinburgh experimenta psychologists with their research.

Most people will not be able to get everything right. People with normal memories can have low scores.

Duration: about 20 minutes

Click here to start the test